Comparison of Android-based Operating Systems

This is a comparison of popular Android “ROMs” (better term: AOSP distributions or Android-based OS). Please note I’m not affiliated with any of these projects and I am not giving any specific recommendation. If you think anything is factually incorrect, please let me know.

DivestOS was originally included in this comparison but it was discontinued at the end of 2024.

Comparison of Android-based Operating Systems

Last updated: 2 August 2025

	GrapheneOS	CalyxOS	IodéOS	/e/	LineageOS	“Stock” Android

Based on	AOSP	AOSP	LineageOS	LineageOS	AOSP	AOSP
Freedom
Free and open source (FOSS)?	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No
Deblobbed?	Yes, significantly	Yes, significantly	Yes, minimal	Yes, minimal	Yes, minimal	No
Features
Network controls for apps	Direct and indirect access	Direct access only	Direct access only	Direct access only	Direct access only	No
Network-based location (without GNSS)	Opt-in with server choice	Yes, using microG location	Yes, using microG location	Yes, using microG location	No	Yes, using Play Services
System-wide connection/tracker blocking	Private DNS setting, or via VPN app	Private DNS setting, or via VPN app	iode-snort app, Private DNS, or VPN	Private DNS setting, or via VPN app	Private DNS setting, or via VPN app	Private DNS setting, or via VPN app
E2E-encrypted phone backups	Yes (Seedvault)	Yes (Seedvault)	Yes (Seedvault)	Yes (Seedvault)	Yes (Seedvault)	Yes, but requires Google login
Notification forwarding from other user profiles	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Duress PIN (to wipe device)	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	No
Android Auto compatible	Yes (sandboxed), see here	Yes (w/ privileged permissions), see here	Yes (w/ privileged permissions), see here	Yes (w/ privileged permissions), see here	No	Yes (w/ privileged permissions)
Google Pay compatible	No	No	No	No	No	Yes (w/ privileged permissions)
Call recording	Yes	Only in selected regions, see here	Only in selected regions, see here	Only in selected regions, see here	Only in selected regions, see here	Depends on regions and manufacturer
Option to enable screenshots in all apps	No	No	No	No	No	No
Degoogling (connections to Google) COLOURS
eSIM activation	Google eUICC w/o data sharing	Google eUICC (preinstalled)	Google eUICC (preinstalled)	Google eUICC (preinstalled)	Google eUICC (preinstalled)	Google eUICC (preinstalled)
Provider for network-based location	None ^default, GrapheneOS, Apple, or Google	microG location	microG location	microG location	n/a	Google
SUPL (for Assisted GNSS)	GrapheneOS ^default, Google or none	Google ^default, or none	Google ^default, or none	None ^default, or Google	Google ^default, or none	Google
PSDS/XTRA (“Standard” depends on GPS chipset)	GrapheneOS ^default, Standard, or none	Standard (excl. Google) ^default, or none	Standard (excl. Google) ^default, or none	None ^default, or Standard	Standard ^default, or none	Standard
Connectivity check/captive portal	GrapheneOS ^default, Google, or none	Google (can be changed)	Kuketz.de (can be changed)	Murena.io (related to /e/) (can be changed)	Google (can be changed)	Google (can be changed)
DNS connectivity check	GrapheneOS ^default, or Google	Google	Google	Google	Google	Google
DNS server fallback	Cloudflare	Cloudflare	Quad9	Quad9	Google	Google
Network time	GrapheneOS ^default, or none	Google (can be changed) & carrier	NTP.org (can be changed) & carrier	NTP.org (can be changed) & carrier	Google (can be changed) & carrier	Google (can be changed) & carrier
Hardware attestation provisioning	GrapheneOS ^default, or Google	Google	Google	Google	Google	Google
DRM (Widevine) provisioning	GrapheneOS ^default, or Google	Google	Google	Google	Google	Google
Google Play Services
Implementation	GmsCompat (sandboxed Google Play)	microG	microG	microG	None by default. It’s possible to install microG manually (LineageOS supports signature spoofing for microG since 2024). Alternatively, there are ROMs with microG preinstalled or one can add Google apps during the installation process, but this is not officially supported by LineageOS.	Google Play Services
Optional?	Yes (not preinstalled)	Yes (preinstalled but opt-out)	Yes (preinstalled but opt-out)	Can be disabled via developer mode		No (preinstalled without opt-out)
Runs in standard app sandbox?	Yes	No	No	No		No
Can be limited to user or work profile?	Yes	Yes	? (TBC)	? (TBC)		No
Signature spoofing needed/allowed?	No	Only for Google signature	Only for Google signature	Only for Google signature		No
Push notifications via Google FCM?	Yes	Optional	Optional	Optional		Yes
Google Play Integrity?	Passes Basic Integrity only, see here	Passes Basic Integrity only	No but basic integrity expected soon	No but basic integrity expected soon		Yes
Option to mark apps as installed by Play Store?	Yes if signature matches	Done if installed from Aurora Store	Done if installed from Aurora Store	No	No	No
Privacy
Storage scopes	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	No
Contact scopes	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	No
Per-app sensor controls	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	No
Per-connection DHCP state flushing	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
MAC address randomization	Per connection, see here	Per network	Per network	Per network	Per network	Per network
SUPL: IMSI or phone number sent?	No	No	No	No	No	Yes
Qualcomm XTRA: user agent sent?	No	Partially (for Qualcomm chips)	Partially (for Qualcomm chips)	Partially (for Qualcomm chips)	Partially (for Qualcomm chips)	for Qualcomm GPS chips
Closed cross-profile package leaks?	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Closed device identifier leaks?	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	No
Metadata stripping for screenshots	Yes, see here	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No
EXIF metadata stripping for photos	Yes, see here	No	No	Available as option	No	No
Location tagging for photos	Opt-in	Opt-in, see here for more info	Opt-in	Opt-in	Opt-in	Opt-out
Tracking through Android Advertising ID?	Not part of the system	Randomized ID	Randomized ID	Randomized ID	Not part of the system	Yes, but can be deleted in settings
Security
Verified boot (if supported by device)?	Yes, incl. system app updates	Yes, but excl. system app updates	Yes, but excl. system app updates	w/ test keys; excl. system app updates	No	Yes, but excl. system app updates
Hardware-based security verification	Yes, see here	No	No	No	No	Some devices, see here
System app downgrade protection	For updates and boot, with fs-verity	For updates (incomplete)	For updates (incomplete)	For updates (incomplete)	For updates (incomplete)	For updates (incomplete)
Secure application spawning?	Yes (exec)	No	No	No	No	No
Hardware memory tagging?	Yes, if supported by device	No	No	No	No	No
Android Runtime JIT compilation/profiling	AOT compilation w/o profiling	Interpreter/JIT with profiling	Interpreter/JIT with profiling	Interpreter/JIT with profiling	Interpreter/JIT with profiling	Interpreter/JIT with profiling
Dynamic code loading prevention for apps	System, opt-in for non-system apps	None	None	None	None	None
Secure TLS for SUPL?	TLSv1.2	TLSv1.1 or TLSv1.0	TLSv1.1 or TLSv1.0	TLSv1.1 or TLSv1.0	TLSv1.1 or TLSv1.0	TLSv1.1 or TLSv1.0
Fallback DNS server with DNSSEC?	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes
Secure connection to network time server?	HTTPS via GrapheneOS server	NTP w/o NTS and carrier-based time	NTP w/o NTS and carrier-based time	NTP w/o NTS and carrier-based time	NTP w/o NTS and carrier-based time	NTP w/o NTS and carrier-based time
Can disable USB-C and pogo pins data?	Default (while locked), see here	No	No	No	No	No
Can disable USB-C charging?	Opt-in (after boot), see here	No	No	No	No	No
Can disable USB connections?	Default (while locked), see here	Default (while locked), software only	? (TBC – like Lineage or stock?)	? (TBC – like Lineage or stock?)	Opt-in, software only	Device admin API
Can auto-disable WiFi if unused?	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
Can auto-disable Bluetooth if unused?	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
Can auto-disable NFC if unused?	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Auto-reboot timer for locked devices	Yes	Yes, with flaws (no proper BFU state)	No	No	No	No
2-factor fingerprint unlock	Yes (fingerprint + PIN), see here	No	No	No	No	No
Hardened system components	Yes, hardened memory allocator, kernel, libc, webview (Vanadium), SELinux policy, and additional hardening. See here	No (same as AOSP)	No (same as AOSP)	No (same as AOSP)	No (same as AOSP)	No (same as AOSP)
Updates
Security update speed (AOSP subset of ASB)	Usually same day	Currently no updates	2-4 weeks, sometimes longer	1-2 months, sometimes longer	1-2 weeks, sometimes longer	Depends on phone vendor
Full patches on fully supported devices	Several days	Currently no updates	Several to many months	Many months to over a year	Several to many months	Depends on phone vendor
Partial security updates (ASB) after EoL date	until 5 years from launch	Currently no updates	Several years	Several years	Several years	By definition: No
Number of Android versions supported	Usually 1 Android version	Currently no updates	Usually 1 Android version	2-3 Android versions	Usually 3 Android versions	Usually 3 Android versions
Webview update speed	<2 days	Currently no updates	<2 weeks	Several weeks/months	<2 weeks	Depends on phone vendor
Supported devices	Hardware requirements	Hardware requirements
Asus*	No	No	No	Older devices only	Older devices only	Yes (ZenUI)
Fairphone	No	Currently not available	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Google	Yes	Currently not available	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Motorola	No	Currently not available	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Oneplus	No	No	Yes	Older devices only	Yes	Yes (OxygenOS)
Samsung*	No	No	Older devices only	Older devices only	Older devices only	Yes (OneUI)
Sony	No	No	Yes	Older devices only	Yes	Yes
Xiaomi	No	No	Older devices only	Older devices only	Yes	Yes (HyperOS)
* these manufacturers don’t support bootloader unlocking anymore for all or most of their new devices. “Older devices only” = no devices released since 2023.

Appendix 1: using different profiles in Android

It is possible to use different profiles to separate apps, files and other data from each other. From least to most separate from the main user profile, the options are: work profile, private space (since Android 15), and secondary users. Below is a comparison how they differ:

	Work profile (with Shelter)	Private space	Secondary user profiles
Privacy & data access
File access	Separate
Contact access	Separate
Calendar storage	Separate
Clipboard	Shared with main profile	Shared with main profile (GrapheneOS: sharing can be disabled)	Separate
VPN connections	Separate
Saved WiFi & Bluetooth connections	Shared with main profile
Private DNS (in settings)	Shared with main profile
System settings	Mostly shared with main profile		Completely separate
Call and SMS history	Cannot access calls & SMS		Optional access (“turn on phone calls & SMS”)
Communication with other apps	Limited to other apps in same profile
See which other apps are installed	Limited to other apps in same profile
Convenience
Profile can run in background?	Yes
Profile can auto-start after reboot?	Yes	No (need to unlock profile first)
Clone apps from/to main profile	Yes, both ways (via Shelter)	GrapheneOS only, from main to private	GrapheneOS only, from main to secondary
Can use biometrics in apps?	Yes	Only if separate biometrics are set up for this profile
Integration with main profile
Quick switch between apps from different profiles?	Yes, apps appear in main profile’s recent app list		No, need to switch active user
Integration in file manager as storage location	Yes (via Shelter)	No
Share files across profiles via “Share” menu	Yes		No
Can add app shortcut to (main profile’s) home screen?	Yes	No
Can add widgets to (main profile’s) home screen?	No
Can show app notifications in main profile?	Yes; same as notifications from apps running in main profile	if using device screen lock for private space: Yes; if using separate PIN/biometrics for private space: Yes, but no notification content is shown, just app name	GrapheneOS only & optional for each profile; no notification content is shown, just app name
Protection & security
PIN & biometrics	Can use same as main profile or set up a separate authentication		Needs to be set up separately but can also use none (“skip”)
Need to enter PIN/fingerprint to unlock profile?	Only if separate work profile PIN was set up	Yes (can be after rebooting or after turning screen off)	Optional (only if a PIN was set up for the profile)
After unlocking profile, need to enter PIN/fingerprint to start apps?	No	if using device screen lock for private space: No; if using separate PIN/biometrics for private space: Yes, after the screen was turned off.	No
Profile session can be shut down or paused?	Yes

Appendix 2: Which other alternative mobile operating systems are there?

Besides Android and Android-based free & open source operating systems (see the table above), the only viable alternative for most people is Apple’s iOS. There have been many attempts to establish a third mobile OS, but so far none of them have been successful: The below is a non-comprehensive list of mobile operating systems, both those you can try today and those that tried and failed in the past:

iOS
Android, both preinstalled proprietary distributions like Samsung’s OneUI or Xiaomi’s HyperOS, and open source forks of AOSP, such as GrapheneOS FOSS or LineageOS FOSS
Windows Mobile/Phone († 2020)
BlackBerry OS († 2018)
Symbian († 2012)
Mobile Linux distributions which can run generic (desktop) Linux applications, such as postmarketOS FOSS and PureOS FOSS or mobile spins of desktop Linux distros such as Fedora, OpenSUSE, OpenMandriva, Debian (Mobian), Manjaro etc. FOSS (see here for a good list)
Other mobile OS using the Linux kernel but unable to run generic (desktop) Linux apps so they need apps specifically developed for them (Android technically also fits in this category):
- SailfishOS
- Ubuntu Touch FOSS
- KaiOS
- FirefoxOS († 2015) FOSS
- Tizen († 2017 – for smartphones at least, it’s still used in Smart TVs)
- Meego († 2012) FOSS
- Maemo († 2011)
- webOS († 2011 – for smartphones at least, it’s still used in Smart TVs)

Source: https://eylenburg.github.io/android_comparison.htm